Dettol Antibacterial Mould Spray and Mildew Remover, Removes Ingrained Mould Stains from Walls, Tiles & Windows, Pack of 3, Total 2.25L

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Many ancient cultures, including those in Australia, China, Egypt, Greece and India, independently discovered the useful properties of fungi and plants in treating infections. These treatments often worked because many organisms, including many species of mould, naturally produce antibiotics. However, ancient practitioners could not precisely identify or isolate the active components in these organisms. [1] [2] Penicillium mould on an orange Fleming, Alexander (1929). "On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of a Penicillium, with Special Reference to their use in the Isolation of B. influenzae". British Journal of Experimental Pathology. 10 (3): 226–236. PMC 2041430. PMID 2048009. ; Reprinted as Fleming, A. (1979). "On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae". British Journal of Experimental Pathology. 60 (1): 3–13. PMC 2041430. Kingston, W (June 2008). "Irish contributions to the origins of antibiotics". Irish Journal of Medical Science. 177 (2): 87–92. doi: 10.1007/s11845-008-0139-x. PMID 18347757. S2CID 32847260. a b Houbraken, J.; Frisvad, J. C.; Samson, R. A. (June 2011). "Fleming's penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P. rubens". IMA Fungus. 2 (1): 87–95. doi: 10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12. PMC 3317369. PMID 22679592. Unbeknown to the Oxford team, their Lancet article was read by Martin Henry Dawson, Gladys Hobby and Karl Meyer at Columbia University, and they were inspired to replicate the Oxford team's results. They obtained a culture of penicillium mould from Roger Reid at Johns Hopkins Hospital, grown from a sample he had received from Fleming in 1935. They began growing the mould on 23 September, and on 30 September tested it against viridans streptococci, and confirmed the Oxford team's results. Meyer duplicated Chain's processes, and they obtained a small quantity of penicillin. On 15 October 1940, doses of penicillin were administered to two patients at the Presbyterian Hospital in New York City, Aaron Alston and Charles Aronson. They became the first persons to receive penicillin treatment in the United States. He then treated two patients with endocarditis. [90] [91] The Columbia team presented the results of their penicillin treatment of the four patients at the annual meeting of the American Society for Clinical Investigation in Atlantic City, New Jersey, on 5 May 1941. Their paper was reported on by William L. Laurence in The New York Times and generated great public interest. [91] [92] [93] A laboratory worker sprays a solution containing penicillin mould into flasks of corn steep liquor medium, to encourage further penicillin growth.

An important development was the discovery of 6-APA itself. In 1957, researchers at the Beecham Research Laboratories in Surrey isolated 6-APA from the culture media of P. chrysogenum. 6-APA was found to constitute the core nucleus of penicillin (and subsequently many β-lactam antibiotics) and was easily chemically modified by attaching side chains through chemical reactions. [178] [179] The discovery was published Nature in 1959. [180] This paved the way for new and improved drugs as all semisynthetic penicillins are produced from chemical manipulation of 6-APA. [181]a b Hamilton-Miller, J. M. (March 2008). "Development of the semisynthetic penicillins and cephalosporins". International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 31 (3): 189–192. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.11.010. PMID 18248798. Harkins, C.P.; Pichon, B.; Doumith, M.; Parkhill, J.; Westh, H.; Tomasz, A.; de Lencastre, H.; Bentley, S.D.; Kearns, A.M.; Holden, M.T. (July 2017). "Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus emerged long before the introduction of methicillin into clinical practice". Genome Biology. 18 (1): 130. doi: 10.1186/s13059-017-1252-9. PMC 5517843. PMID 28724393. a b Fleming, Alexander (1929). "On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae". British Journal of Experimental Pathology. 10 (3): 226–236. reprinted in Fleming, A. (1979). "On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae". British Journal of Experimental Pathology. 60 (1): 3–13. PMC 2041430. PMID 2048009. Florey met with neurophysiologist John Fulton, who introduced him to Ross Harrison, the Chairman of the National Research Council (NRC). Harrison referred Florey to Thom, the chief mycologist at the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture (UDSDA) in Beltsville, Maryland, and the man who had identified the mould reported by Fleming. On 9 July, Thom took Florey and Heatley to Washington, D.C., to meet Percy Wells, the acting assistant chief of the USDA Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry and as such the head of the USDA's four laboratories. Wells sent an introductory telegram to Orville May, the director of the UDSA's Northern Regional Research Laboratory (NRRL) in Peoria, Illinois. They met with May on 14 July, and he arranged for them to meet Robert D. Coghill, the chief of the NRRL's fermentation division, who raised the possibility that fermentation in large vessels might be the key to large-scale production. [103] [104] [105] By March 1940 the Oxford team had sufficient impure penicillin to commence testing whether it was toxic. Over the next two months, Florey and Jennings conducted a series of experiments on rats, mice, rabbits and cats in which penicillin was administered in various ways. Their results showed that penicillin was destroyed in the stomach, but that all forms of injection were effective, as indicated by assay of the blood. It was found that penicillin was largely and rapidly excreted unchanged in their urine. [80] They found no evidence of toxicity in any of their animals. Had they tested against guinea pigs research might have halted at this point, for penicillin is toxic to guinea pigs. [81]

Ernst B. Chain – Nobel Lecture: The Chemical Structure of the Penicillins". Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 10 May 2017. Defries, R. D. (August 1948). "The Connaught Medical Research Laboratories 1914–1948". Canadian Journal of Public Health. 39 (8): 330–344. ISSN 0319-2652. JSTOR 41979831. PMID 18878250. Pouillard, Jean (2002). "Une découverte oubliée: la thèse de médecine du docteur Ernest Duchesne (1874–1912)"[A Forgotten Discovery: Doctor of Medicine Ernest Duchesne's Thesis (1874–1912).] (PDF). Histoire des Sciences Médicales (in French). XXXVI (1): 11–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2019.

a b c Diggins, F. W. (1999). "The true history of the discovery of penicillin, with refutation of the misinformation in the literature". British Journal of Biomedical Science. 56 (2): 83–93. ISSN 0967-4845. PMID 10695047. By 1942, some strains of Staphylococcus aureus had developed a strong resistance to penicillin and many strains were resistant by the 1960s. [225] In 1946, bacteriologist Mary Barber began a study of penicillin resistance through natural selection at Hammersmith Hospital in London. She found that in 1946, seven out of eight bacterial infections were susceptible to penicillin, but two years later only three out of eight were. Nurses were exposed to both bacteria and penicillin and harboured and transmitted bacterial infections. Miller found that three out of ten student midwives were colonized by bacteria when they arrived; after three months, seven out of ten were. The problem was sloppy hygiene practices by health care workers, poor medical practices like prophylactic use of antibiotics, and slipshod administrative practices, such as taking babies from their mothers to large hospital nurseries where they could infect each other. [226] Arseculeratne, S. N.; Arseculeratne, G. (May 2017). "A re-appraisal of the conventional history of antibiosis and Penicillin". Mycoses. 60 (5): 343–347. doi: 10.1111/myc.12599. PMID 28144986. S2CID 21424547.

Wells, Percy A. (September 1975). "Some Aspects of the Early History of Penicillin in the United States". Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 65 (3): 96–101. ISSN 0043-0439. JSTOR 24536802. Gould, Kate (2016). "Antibiotics: From Prehistory to the Present Day". The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 71 (3): 572–575. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkv484. ISSN 0305-7453. PMID 26851273. Rolinson, G. N.; Geddes, A. M. (2007). "The 50th anniversary of the discovery of 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA)". International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 29 (1): 3–8. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2006.09.003. PMID 17137753. Allison, V. D. (1974). "Personal recollections of Sir Almroth Wright and Sir Alexander Fleming". The Ulster Medical Journal. 43 (2): 89–98. PMC 2385475. PMID 4612919. a b "Making Penicillin Possible: Norman Heatley Remembers". ScienceWatch. 2007. Archived from the original on 21 February 2007 . Retrieved 13 February 2007.

13. Conclusion

The results are clear cut, and show that penicillin is active in vivo against at least three of the organisms inhibited in vitro. It would seem a reasonable hope that all organisms in high dilution in vitro will be found to be dealt with in vivo. Penicillin does not appear to be related to any chemotherapeutic substance at present in use and is particularly remarkable for its activity against the anaerobic organisms associated with gas gangrene. [82] a b "Discovery and Development of Penicillin: International Historic Chemical Landmark". Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society . Retrieved 10 July 2023. Wyn Jones, E.; Wyn Jones, R. G. (December 2002). "Merlin Pryce (1902–1976) and Penicillin: An Abiding Mystery". Vesalius. 8 (2): 6–25. ISSN 1373-4857. PMID 12713008. Dorothy Hodgkin received the 1964 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances." She became only the third woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, after Marie Curie in 1911 and Irène Joliot-Curie in 1935. [207] Development of penicillin derivatives [ edit ]